Over time, the field of psychology has made significant strides in the treatment of psychiatric conditions, including major depressive disorder (MDD), schizophrenia, and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Depression, also known as clinical depression, is a prevalent mental health condition defined by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and emptiness, all of which significantly impact the quality of life. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 3.8% of the global population experiences depression, with 15% of those affected dying by suicide. This review focuses on the emerging role of psychobiotics in treating clinical depression. Recent studies indicate that psychobiotics, which combine probiotics and prebiotics, offer potential therapeutic benefits. These compounds not only introduce beneficial bacteria to the gut but also support the growth of existing gut microbiota. Research on the gut-brain axis has revealed its key role in the effectiveness of psychobiotics, offering promising results for improving mental health. Beyond treating psychological disorders, psychobiotics also contribute to overall health by enhancing gut function.
The growing use of muscle-enhancing steroids, particularly anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS), has raised significant concerns about their potential adverse effects on cardiovascular health, with heart attacks being a key risk. This study offers an in-depth exploration of the relationship between muscle-enhancing drugs and heart attacks. It examines the physiological processes by which steroids may lead to cardiovascular complications, such as hypertension, dyslipidemia, atherosclerosis, and thrombosis. The research also evaluates the epidemiological data that links steroid use to a higher likelihood of heart attacks and other cardiovascular incidents. In addition, the study addresses the ethical issues surrounding steroid use in sports and fitness, as well as the regulatory measures in place to combat abuse. The importance of interdisciplinary collaboration and evidence-driven strategies to tackle this public health challenge is emphasized. Ultimately, the study advocates increased awareness, more extensive research, and stronger preventive efforts to reduce the cardiovascular risks associated with muscle-enhancing steroids, while encouraging safer alternatives for fitness enhancement.
Creatine is a naturally occurring compound found in muscle tissue that plays a vital role in cellular energy metabolism. While traditionally recognized for its benefits in enhancing skeletal muscle function and exercise performance, recent research has highlighted its potential therapeutic applications in various medical fields. This study reviews the available literature to assess the current state of knowledge regarding creatine’s medical uses and outlines directions for future research. Evidence has demonstrated a correlation between low creatine levels and reduced mental well-being, suggesting a role in the central nervous system. Notably, creatine has been explored as a potential antidepressant—both as a standalone treatment and as an adjunct to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)—owing to its newly discovered function as a neurotransmitter. Additionally, long-term investigations into creatine’s molecular mechanisms in the brain have prompted its study in stroke management, where it may support both prevention in high-risk populations and post-stroke rehabilitation. In the context of chronic heart failure, creatine has been linked to cardiomyocyte metabolic dysfunction, particularly regarding disruption of the creatine/phosphocreatine/ATP shuttle. Although studies examining creatine supplementation in cardiovascular disease have produced mixed results, the compound shows promise as a supportive therapy. However, further research is necessary to confirm its efficacy and safety across these medical applications.
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a chronic and progressive neurodegenerative condition characterized by motor impairments such as tremors and stiffness, along with non-motor symptoms including cognitive decline and depression. While current dopaminergic therapies help manage symptoms, they do not halt the progression of the disease, underscoring the urgent need for treatments that can modify its course. This review explores the potential of repurposing drugs from diverse therapeutic categories—such as immunomodulators, cardiometabolic agents, and anti-infectives—to treat PD. Immunomodulatory compounds such as c-Abl inhibitors (e.g., imatinib and nilotinib) and sargramostim have shown potential to reduce α-synuclein buildup and brain inflammation, though clinical outcomes have been inconsistent. Among cardiometabolic drugs, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists, such as exenatide, have shown promising results in improving motor and cognitive function, with phase III trials currently investigating their ability to slow disease progression. Some anti-infective agents, including doxycycline and rifampicin, offer neuroprotective benefits through anti-inflammatory and anti-aggregation mechanisms. Despite ongoing concerns regarding their effectiveness and potential side effects, these repurposed drugs represent promising avenues for PD treatment. Moreover, emerging strategies such as gene therapy, enzyme replacement therapy, and advanced drug-delivery technologies aim to target the underlying disease mechanisms directly. Although no definitive disease-modifying treatment exists yet, the investigation of repurposed and novel therapies provides optimism for future advancements. Further large-scale clinical studies are essential to confirm their safety and therapeutic value.
Herbal substances have long been used as drugs of abuse, with traditional addictive substances like opium and cannabis often being derived from natural, crude plant materials. Cannabinoids and cathinones, for example, are natural derivatives. However, the safety and efficacy of these substances remain significant concerns that require attention and increased awareness. This review highlights various plants, including khat, kratom, salvia, and mandrake, to inform both experts and the general public about the potential risks associated with regular use and synthetic derivatives. Some of these “herbal plants” should be recognized as harmful substances, as prolonged use has been linked to addiction and cognitive impairments. Despite ongoing research, there is still a lack of comprehensive studies addressing these issues. This paper explores the toxicological concerns and key safety risks associated with plant-based products. Ensuring the safety and reliability of herbal remedies is of paramount importance, given ongoing concerns about their use.
Eurasian Academy of Medicine and Dentistry